There is more to Carb
1️⃣ Types of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (C₆H₁₂O₆) — the body’s primary energy source for brain and muscle function.
Simple Carbohydrates (Fast Energy)
Monosaccharides → 1 sugar unit
Glucose: main blood sugar, used by all body cells for energy
Fructose: fruit sugar, digested slower; converted to glucose in the liver
Galactose: found in dairy, combines with glucose to form lactose
Disaccharides → 2 sugar units
Sucrose (glucose + fructose): table sugar
Lactose (glucose + galactose): milk sugar
Maltose (glucose + glucose): from starch digestion
Complex Carbohydrates (Sustained Energy)
Oligosaccharides: 3–10 sugar subunits (e.g., raffinose, stachyose)
Polysaccharides: 10+ sugar subunits (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose)
Starch: plant energy source (amylose & amylopectin)
Glycogen: animal storage form of glucose (in muscle & liver)
Fiber: indigestible complex carbohydrate
2️⃣ Importance of Fiber
Fiber is a non-digestible carbohydrate vital for gut health and metabolic regulation.
Types:
Soluble Fiber (oats, fruits, legumes)
Dissolves in water → forms gel
Slows digestion → stabilizes blood sugar
Lowers LDL cholesterol
Provides ~2 kcal/g
Insoluble Fiber (whole grains, vegetables)
Does not dissolve in water
Adds bulk to stool → promotes regularity
Speeds waste movement through GI tract
Benefits:
Improves satiety → aids weight control
Supports gut microbiome health
Reduces risk of heart disease, diabetes, colon cancer
Optimal intake: 21–38 g/day (≈14g fiber per 1,000 kcal)
3️⃣ Glucose Storage & Energy Use
Glucose fuels muscles, brain, and the nervous system.
The body stores glucose as glycogen in:
Liver → regulates blood sugar
Muscle → powers contraction
Storage limit: ~1,800–2,600 kcal worth of glycogen.
For every 1g glycogen stored → ~3g water retained (why rapid weight loss from low-carb diets is mostly water).
Energy Conversion:
1 glucose molecule → ~30 ATP (cellular energy units)
When glycogen stores run low → the body uses fats and proteins (gluconeogenesis) for energy.
Balanced carbohydrate intake ensures consistent mental focus and physical endurance.
Regulation:
Insulin (from pancreas): lowers blood glucose → stores glycogen
Glucagon (from pancreas): raises blood glucose → releases glycogen
Exercise boosts glucose uptake via GLUT4 transporters, improving insulin sensitivity
4️⃣ Carbohydrate Digestion
Step-by-Step Process:
Mouth:
Chewing (mastication) + salivary amylase start starch breakdown → maltose & dextrins
Only ~5% digested here
Stomach:
Mechanical mixing → forms chyme (no carb digestion by stomach acid)
Small Intestine:
Pancreatic amylase continues starch breakdown
Enzymes from intestinal villi:
Lactase: lactose → glucose + galactose
Maltase: maltose → 2 glucose
Sucrase: sucrose → glucose + fructose
Monosaccharides absorbed into intestinal cells (enterocytes) → bloodstream
Liver:
Converts galactose & fructose → glucose
Stores excess glucose as glycogen
Bloodstream:
Glucose used immediately for energy or stored for later
⚖️ Key Takeaways
Carbs are essential for physical performance, cognition, and recovery.
Choose complex carbs + fiber for steady energy and improved gut health.
Manage glycemic index/load to stabilize blood sugar and appetite.
Cells
🧠 Cells, Organ Systems & Digestion
1️⃣ Cells — The Building Blocks of Life
Cells are the smallest functional units of the human body.
→ Functions: structure, nutrient absorption, energy production, waste removal, communication, and replication.Made of ~70% water, plus macronutrients (protein, fat, carbohydrate) and minerals.
Contain organelles that perform specialized metabolic tasks.
⚙️ Major Organelles & Functions
Organelle Function Nucleus Stores DNA, controls cell activity Nucleolus Produces ribosomes Mitochondria Generates ATP (energy)Ribosome Builds proteins Rough ER Synthesizes proteins Smooth ER Makes lipids, hormones; detoxifies Golgi Apparatus Packages proteins for transport Lysosome Breaks down waste Peroxisome Detoxifies and breaks down fats Centriole Aids in cell division
🔬 Cell Membrane (Lipid Bilayer)
Made of 60% protein / 40% phospholipids
Controls entry/exit of substances
Polar hydrophilic heads face water, hydrophobic tails repel it → forms bilayer barrier
Allows cell signaling, nutrient transport, and communication
2️⃣ Types of Cells
The human body has 200+ specialized cell types, each suited to its role.
Category Example Function Stem Cell Blastocyst Can become any cell type Red Blood Cell Erythrocyte Carries oxygen White Blood Cell Lymphocyte Immune defense Platelet Megakaryocyte Blood clotting Nerve Cell Neuron Sends impulses Muscle Cell Myocyte Movement (voluntary/involuntary)Bone Cell Osteoblast / Osteoclast Build & remodel bone Skin Cell Keratinocyte, Melanocyte Protection & pigment Epithelial Cell GI tract lining Absorption/secretion Adipose Cell Adipocyte Stores energy (fat)Sex Cell Sperm / Ovum Reproduction
3️⃣ Tissues of the Human Body
Groups of similar cells forming functional layers.
🧩 Four Primary Tissue Types
Type Function Example Epithelial Lines & protects; secretes & absorbs Skin, GI tract, glands Connective Binds, supports, stores Bone, cartilage, fat, blood Muscle Contracts for movement Skeletal, cardiac, smooth Nervous Communication & control Brain, spinal cord, nerves
⚡ Note: Transitional epithelium (bladder) stretches; glandular epithelium secretes hormones & fluids.
4️⃣ Human Organ Systems (11 Total)
The systems are interconnected — failure in one affects the others.
SystemMain FunctionMajor ComponentsIntegumentaryProtects, regulates tempSkin, hair, nailsMuscularMovement, posture, heatSkeletal, smooth, cardiac muscleSkeletalSupport, protection, blood cell productionBones, ligaments, cartilageNervousControls body & sensesBrain, spinal cord, nervesEndocrineHormone regulationGlands (pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas)CirculatoryTransports blood, oxygen, nutrientsHeart, arteries, veins, capillariesLymphaticImmunity & fluid balanceLymph nodes, vessels, spleenRespiratoryGas exchange (O₂/CO₂)Lungs, trachea, diaphragmUrinaryExcretes waste, maintains fluid balanceKidneys, bladder, urethraReproductiveProduces offspringOvaries/testes, uterus, penisDigestiveBreaks down & absorbs nutrientsGI tract, liver, pancreas, gallbladder
5️⃣ Digestive System & Its Functions
Main Goal: Convert food → nutrients → cellular energy (ATP).
🦠 6 Core Functions
Ingestion – food enters mouth
Mechanical Digestion – chewing, stomach churning
Chemical Digestion – enzymes & acids break macronutrients
Movement – peristalsis propels food
Absorption – nutrients absorbed into blood/lymph
Elimination – wastes excreted
🧩 Digestive Tract (Alimentary Canal)
Organ Function Mouth Chews food; amylase begins starch breakdown Pharynx Passage for food, water, air Esophagus Moves food to stomach Stomach Mixes food with acid; forms chyme Small Intestine Major nutrient absorption (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)Large Intestine Absorbs water/electrolytes; forms feces Rectum/Anus Stores and eliminates waste
⚙️ Accessory Organs
OrganFunctionLiverMakes bile; detoxifies; stores glycogen & vitaminsGallbladderStores bile; aids fat digestionPancreasSecretes enzymes (amylase, lipase, protease) and hormones (insulin, glucagon)
🧪 Key Digestive Enzymes & Hormones
Enzyme/Hormone Function Amylase Breaks down starches Lipase Breaks down fats Protease/Peptidase Breaks down proteins Lactase Digests lactose Sucrase/Maltase Break sugars into glucose Gastrin Stimulates stomach acid Secretin Regulates water & pH in duodenum CCK (Cholecystokinin)Stimulates bile & pancreatic enzymes
⚖️ Takeaways
All cells and systems are interdependent — structure enables function.
Digestive health fuels every other system (circulatory, muscular, endocrine).
Encourage clients to maintain balanced nutrition + hydration to optimize cellular energy and system recovery.
Gut integrity = performance stability.
Metabolism & Energy Balance
It all begins with an idea.
1️⃣ Human Energy Balance
⚙️ Definition
Energy balance is the relationship between energy intake (calories consumed) and energy expenditure (calories burned).
Positive Energy Balance: intake > expenditure → weight gain
Negative Energy Balance: intake < expenditure → weight loss
Neutral Energy Balance: intake = expenditure → maintenance
⚖️ Energy Intake
Comes from macronutrients:
Carbohydrate = 4 kcal/g
Protein = 4 kcal/g
Fat = 9 kcal/g
Alcohol = 7 kcal/g
Determined by total calories consumed in 24 h.
Excess = stored as fat or glycogen. Deficit = body draws from stored fuel.
🔥 Energy Expenditure Components
ComponentDescriptionApprox. % of totalResting Metabolic Rate (RMR)Energy to maintain vital body functions (heart, breathing, temperature, cellular repair)~ 65–70 %Thermic Effect of Food (TEF)Energy required to digest, absorb, and metabolize food~ 10 %Physical ActivityMovement, exercise, daily activity~ 20–30 %Growth & RepairTissue growth (youth, pregnancy, training adaptation)Variable
🧮 Harris-Benedict Formula (BMR Estimation)
Men: 66.5 + (13.75 × kg) + (5.0 × cm) – (6.75 × age)
Women: 655 + (9.56 × kg) + (1.85 × cm) – (4.68 × age)
💡 Small daily adjustments (±200–300 kcal) can correct long-term imbalance.
2️⃣ Energy Systems of the Body
Energy systems supply ATP (cellular energy) through aerobic or anaerobic processes.
They overlap continuously, with dominance shifting by intensity & duration.
⚡ A. Phosphagen (ATP-PC) System
Fuel: Stored ATP + phosphocreatine
Duration: 0–30 s of max effort (sprint, jump)
Location: Sarcoplasm of muscle cell
Key Enzyme: Creatine kinase → ADP + PC → ATP + creatine
Oxygen Needed: No (anaerobic)
By-product: H⁺ (proton build-up → fatigue)
Purpose: Immediate power, short bursts
🔸 B. Anaerobic Glycolysis (Lactic Acid System)
Fuel: Glucose or glycogen
Duration: ~ 30 s – 2 min (high intensity)
Process: Glucose → 2 pyruvate → lactate (+ 2 ATP)
Key Enzymes: LDH (lactate dehydrogenase), NAD⁺/NADH system
Oxygen: Not required
By-products: Lactate + H⁺ (acid accumulation → fatigue)
Purpose: Short-term energy without oxygen
🔹 C. Aerobic System (Oxidative Phosphorylation)
Fuel: Carbohydrates, fats, lactate, ketones
Duration: > 2 min to hours (low to moderate intensity)
Location: Mitochondria
Stages:
Glycolysis → pyruvate
Krebs Cycle → CO₂, NADH, FADH₂
Electron Transport Chain → O₂ → H₂O + ~ 32 ATP
ATP Yield: Glucose ≈ 30–32 ATP | Fatty acid ≈ 106 ATP
By-products: CO₂ + H₂O (less fatigue than anaerobic systems)
Purpose: Sustained energy production
🏃♂️ All systems work together — phosphagen dominates first seconds, glycolysis supports short bursts, aerobic powers long-term work.
3️⃣ Body’s Energy Currency — ATP
💥 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
The universal energy molecule for all cellular work.
Made of adenine + ribose + 3 phosphate groups.
Energy is released when the bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate breaks.
🔄 ATP–ADP Cycle
StepProcessEnzymeDescription1ATP → ADP + Pi + energyATPaseDephosphorylation (releases energy)2ADP + Pi + energy → ATPATP synthaseRephosphorylation (recharges ATP)
Water (H₂O) is essential for ATP hydrolysis.
Hydrogen ions (H⁺) are released → excess = metabolic acidosis → fatigue.
ATP turnover rate increases with training & hydration.
⚙️ ATP Production Summary
System Oxygen Speed Duration ATP YieldPhosphagenNoFastest0–30 s1 ATP/PC Anaerobic GlycolysisNoFast30 s–2 min2 ATP/glucose Aerobic OxidativeYesSlowest2 min–hrs30–106 ATP (depends on fuel)
⚖️ Coach’s Key Takeaways
Energy balance = foundation of metabolism: calorie in vs calorie out.
RMR is the largest portion of energy expenditure — protect it with lean mass.
ATP is the body’s energy currency, continuously recycled via the ATP-ADP cycle.
Anaerobic systems fuel short bursts; aerobic system sustains endurance.
Training and nutrition directly affect how efficiently the body produces & uses ATP.
Hydration is critical — water enables ATP hydrolysis and energy release.
Vitamins
It all begins with an idea.
1️⃣ Definition & Classification
Vitamins are organic micronutrients essential for metabolism, growth, recovery, and immunity.
They support enzyme activity, tissue repair, and performance.
They are classified by solubility:
TypeKey PropertyStorageRiskFat-Soluble VitaminsDissolve in fats/lipidsStored in liver & adipose tissueToxicity possibleWater-Soluble VitaminsDissolve in waterNot stored (excreted in urine)Deficiency risk if not replenished
2️⃣ Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K)
VitaminRole in BodyDeficiencyToxicityFood SourcesCoach’s NoteA (Retinol, Beta-Carotene)Vision, immunity, reproduction, antioxidantDry skin, night blindnessLiver damage, birth defectsLiver, fish oils, eggs, milk, carrots, spinachAthletes need adequate beta-carotene for recovery and antioxidant defense.D (Calciferol)Calcium & phosphorus absorption, bone/teeth health, immune functionRickets, bone softening, fracturesCalcium buildup in soft tissue, kidney damageSunlight, fortified milk, salmon, egg yolkLow sun exposure = higher dietary need; supports bone strength and muscle recovery.E (Alpha-Tocopherol)Antioxidant, protects cell membranes, supports RBCs and DNAMuscle weakness, anemiaRare; may affect clotting (interferes with K)Vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, wheat germActs as an antioxidant, may support high-altitude recovery.K (Phylloquinone, Menaquinone)Blood clotting, bone metabolismHemorrhaging, bleeding riskRare; excessive intake affects infantsLeafy greens, broccoli, milk, eggsEssential before surgery for normal clotting; balance with vitamin E.
3️⃣ Water-Soluble Vitamins (B-Complex & C)
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Functions: Collagen synthesis, immune support, iron absorption, antioxidant protection
Deficiency: Scurvy (weak connective tissues, bleeding gums)
Toxicity: High doses → nausea, diarrhea, headaches
Sources: Citrus fruits, peppers, broccoli, strawberries
Coach Tip: Supports tissue repair and immune resilience; endurance athletes may require more antioxidants.
B-Vitamin Complex
All B vitamins act as coenzymes — supporting metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Vitamin Function Deficiency Food Sources Athletic ConsiderationB1 (Thiamin)Energy metabolism, nerve function Fatigue, poor coordination (beriberi)Pork, grains, beans, peas Needed for carbohydrate metabolism; may help endurance athletes.B2 (Riboflavin)Energy production, tissue repair Cracked lips, skin irritation Dairy, meat, leafy greens Important for skin and eye health under training stress.B3 (Niacin)Energy release, cholesterol regulation Pellagra (skin & mental symptoms)Meat, grains, legumes Too much reduces performance (fat metabolism interference).B6 (Pyridoxine)Protein metabolism, RBC formation Anemia, poor wound healing Chicken, fish, eggs, nuts Supports glycogen breakdown and strength recovery.B9 (Folate)DNA synthesis, RBC production Anemia, birth defects Liver, eggs, greens Important for female athletes and tissue repair.B12 (Cobalamin)Nerve function, RBC formation Fatigue, anemia, neurological issues Meat, fish, eggs, dairy Vital for vegetarians to supplement; supports endurance.B7 (Biotin)Energy metabolism, hair & skin Dermatitis, hair loss Eggs, nuts, milk, soy Supports healthy metabolism and skin; no performance boost.B5 (Pantothenic Acid)Part of CoA for energy from fats/carbs Fatigue, nausea (rare)Meats, eggs, grains Supports endurance energy use.B8 (Inositol)Fat metabolism, neurotransmitter support Rare Whole grains, fruits, nuts Supports focus, may affect mood regulation. Choline Fat metabolism, nerve signaling Muscle fatigue, liver dysfunction Eggs, soy, liver Delays fatigue and aids recovery.
4️⃣ Health & Performance Benefits
Category Benefit Example Immune Function Vitamins A, C, D, E Protect against infection and inflammation Energy ProductionB1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7Convert food → usable energy Muscle & Nerve Function D, B6, B12, Choline Support contraction, recovery, and repair Tissue Repair C, B9, B12Collagen formation, RBC synthesis Antioxidant Defense A, C, E, Beta-Carotene Combat oxidative stress Bone & Joint Health D, K, C Strengthen bones and connective tissue
5️⃣ Food Source Summary
Vitamin Type Key Sources Fat-Soluble Eggs, liver, fish oils, nuts, leafy greens, dairyWater-Soluble Fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, animal proteins Best Practices: Eat a colorful diet (green, orange, red foods), mix plant and animal sources, and limit supplementation unless deficient.
⚖️ Coach’s Key Takeaways
Vitamins regulate metabolism, recovery, and immune defense.
Fat-soluble vitamins can build up → watch upper limits.
Water-soluble vitamins need daily replenishment.
Whole foods first — supplements only fill gaps, not replace nutrition.
Hydration is key for vitamin absorption and metabolism.